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Sastra merupakan suatu bentuk karya yang tertulis dengan makna dan tujuan tertentu dari pengarangnya. Karya sastra bervariasi bentuknya, ada yang pendek ada yang panjang, ada yang terikat aturan ada yang bebas. Karya sastra tertulis dibuat untuk merekam kejadian yang terjadi pada saat itu di masa lampau. Seiring dengan perkembangan jaman, makna sastra berkembang dan jenisnya pun beragam. Puisi adalah salah satu cara para penyair untuk mendeskripsikan kondisi sosial pada suatu masa atau era. Sejak dahulu Indonesia sudah terkenal dengan karya-karya sastra yang berbentuk pantun, sajak, gurindam, mantera, syair dan lain sebagainya. Karya-karya ini digunakan untuk berbagai macam kejadian seperti pernikahan, kematian dan acara sosial lainnya. Seiring dengan perkembangan jaman, berkembanglah pula karya-karya sastra tersebut dan muncullah jenis-jenis puisi baru. Puisi-puisi baru tersebut juga digunakan sebagai salah satu bentuk ekspresi dari seorang sastrawan untuk mengungkapkan perasaan dan pendapat terhadap kondisi sosial yang berlaku di masyarakat. Baik berupa pujian maupun berupa sindiran atau protes. Karya sastra merupakan potret sejarah yang mencerminkan kondisi sosial masyarakat, politik, ekonomi dan budaya yang terjadi pada saat itu. Puisi yang akan dibahas dibuat pada tahun 1978 pada masa awal pemerintahan Soeharto setelah kesekian kalinya. W.S. Rendra membuat puisi â€Å"mata-mata† dengan suatu tujuan untuk memprotes sekaligus merefleksikan kondisi sosial masyarakat Indonesia berdasarkan pengalaman pribadinya hidup di jaman itu. Puisi yang akan dibahas ini adalah sebuah puisi yang berjudul â€Å"mata-mata† karya WS. Rendra. Beliau adalah salah satu penyair terhebat dan paling dikenang di Indonesia sepanjang masa. Bentuk puisi â€Å"mata-... ...si ini ditulis. Sehingga hasil interpretasi bisa menjadi tepat dengan adanya dukungan dari sejarah dan kejadian nyata. 1.4.1 Metode Pengumpulan Data 1.4.1.1 Sumber Primer 1.4.1.2 Sumber Sekunder Sumber sekunder dapat didapatkan dan dikumpulkan melalui puisi ini sendiri, buku dan situs-situs Internet. Informasi yang akan digunakan akan diseleksi dan dipilih secara seksama sehingga informasi yang didapatkan relevan dan terpecaya. Esai ini bertujuan untuk menganalisa dan mengupas tuntas sebuah puisi yang berjudul â€Å"mata – mata† karya WS. Rendra untuk menjawab sebuah pertanyaan â€Å"bagaimana puisi â€Å"mata – mata† dapat menunjukkan kondisi sosial Indonesia? Dengan cara menganalisa dan mengupas tuntas dengan berbagai teknik dan teori, maka arti dan tujuan dari puisi itu sendiri seakan-akan dapat diperjelas dan lebih nampak agar lebih mudah untuk dimengerti oleh semua orang.

The Importance of the 14th Amendment

The fourteenth amendment covers equal protection as well as due process. One of the most influential amendments that is still playing a huge role even today in the court system is the equal protection clause. This clause which states in section 1 â€Å"No State shall†¦ deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. † In section 5, the Amendment establishes the federal civil rights legislation: â€Å"The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legislation, the provisions of this article. These clauses have been the basis for many court challenges, and ultimately the Supreme Court must decide if discrimination issues are unreasonably discriminatory against a particular group or class of individuals. This country has witnessed laws challenged under this Amendment such as the separate but equal laws, also known as Jim Crow laws. The Supreme Court must use three different tests to determine if a law breaks the equal protection clause .The three tests are to include strict scrutiny, which prevents certain groups from practicing a fundamental right, such as freedom of speech. The law must be a compelling state interest. A law based on a suspect classification such as race falls under this test. There must be justification that a law is written and it is a compelling state interest. The next test is intermediate scrutiny. This is more difficult for the Court to decide on, but under this test, laws based on gender classification are allowed only when they are clearly related to a government issue.The punishment for statutory rape was an example used. Men are punished but women generally aren’t. The reason being, women are the ones who become pregnant, so an over age man who impregnates an under aged girl has left her dealing with the ramifications of his actions. It is not as clear cut with an over aged women and under aged male. Yet having separate drinking ages for males and females does not meet the criter ia of the intermediate scrutiny because it is unreasonable to think there should be any different in the genders in this case.The last test is the rational test. Most laws pass this test as most laws are reasonable. An example given was a city that didn’t want street venders in a certain area of town. The city just needs to show that it is reasonable to not want venders in an area because the city doesn’t want an increase in traffic issues in an area, or any other reasonable justification for prohibiting certain actions. This clause however has been used to eventually overturn the idea that separate but equal is constitutional.In 1955, the Supreme Court ruled that segregated school was a violation and even harmful to children. Much of the civil rights movement was based on this clause, that all people are to be equal under the eyes of the law. Today we are looking at very similar battles going on in our courts. It is no longer an issue of race or even gender, but disab ilities and sexual orientation. Many are fighting for their equal protection under the law. They aren’t asking for special treatment, just equal treatment, as protected by the Fourteenth Amendment.

The Old Nurse s Story - 1329 Words

When it comes to Elizabeth Gaskell and her stories, the story titled, â€Å"The Old Nurse s Story†, serves as the perfect example of the Gothic elements that were very popular in many authors stories and poems during this period of time. During this time of British literature, Romanticism and Gothic elements were the two main strategic ways of writing and how the audience read and perceived the stories being told. The Gothic element of writing consisted of dark, gloomy and ghostly literature that brought a haunted feel to the each story. Some Gothic stories could consist of ghostly figures haunting the characters in the story or the stories told could be about someone suffering a gruesome death that brought a darkness theme to it. That Gothic feel was very evident in the story by Gaskell because of the supernatural figures that were present as she describes the setting, the description of the characters and the issue that was taking place. Some of those Gothic elements that yo u see throughout the story is the house that seems to be isolated, the mysterious sounds that they continue to hear and the storms outside. These supernatural details give the story the dark and gloomy theme that makes it part of the Gothic period. When discussing the â€Å"The Old Nurse s Story†, the general synopsis of the story is about a young orphan girl that is left in the care of her nanny and her aunt that has a bunch of servants. The story starts out like any other typical story but as it continuesShow MoreRelated`` The Signalman `` : The Old Nurse s Story, Saki s The Open Window, And George1715 Words   |  7 PagesCharles Dickens’s â€Å"The Signalman†, Elizabeth Gaskell’s â€Å"The Old Nurse’s Story†, Saki’s â€Å"The Open Window† and George Elliot’s â€Å"The Lifted Veil† all implement the supernatural to either impose a philosophical dilemma, a moral, or poke fun at the Victorian era’s fascin ation with the supernatural; furthermore, all of the authors utilize their spirits or spiritual gifts to represent various illnesses that manifest in their characters. â€Å"The Signalman† utilizes the trolley problem (a thought experimentRead MoreOne Flew Over The Cuckoo s Nest By Ken Kesey1534 Words   |  7 Pages The portrayal of women and minorities in the novel One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest by Ken Kesey, shows readers the opinions of a majority of the population during the 1960s in which women in power were ridiculed. The book’s antagonist Nurse Ratched is presented as machine-like, and robotic. This shows how author Ken Kesey dehumanizes women who are in power, and decides to take away all their feminine qualities when they are in power because to Kesey it simply doesn t make sense that a female canRead MoreStory About A Black Old Woman845 Words   |  4 PagesStory Introduction /Overview: Summery: The story is about a black old women (Phoenix Jackson) and her journey to the city to get the medicine for her grandson throat . She walks for a long distance. She walks through the fence carefully to protect her clothe from being torn. The woman walks through the cotton field and along the narrow hills and passes the muddy track. She faces her fear of wild animals and their sounds during her walk. After the woman passes the muddy track she faced a dogRead MoreOne Flew Over The Cuckoos Nest1403 Words   |  6 Pagesmaking other characters betray one another and reveal their shame. The manner in which the dominant characters attack the other s’ â€Å"manhood† demonstrates their methods for manipulating the inferior characters under their control. The 4.diverse types of minority groups become 5.conspicuous as the author reveals the 6.inclement and 7.sadistic character, Nurse Ratched, the stories antagonist, , who runs the ward with 8.morbid intentions to 9.desiccate t he courage of the people around her. The power in whichRead MoreEudora Welty s A Worn Path1481 Words   |  6 Pagesnovelist, Eudora Welty, has written many short stories and novels. Welty’s work is mainly focused with great precision on the regional manners of people inhabiting a small Mississippi town that resembles her own birthplace and the Delta country. Welty was born on April 13, 1909 and was raised by her close-knit and loving parents. In fact, Welty inherited the love of language from her mother. During her lifetime, Welty has earned many awards from her short stories and novel, such as the Pulitzer Prize thatRead MoreAnalysis Of Mcewan s Atonement 1690 Words   |  7 Pagesthirteen-year-old girl named Briony Tallis who is the main character of the book.   she is sorta the narrator of the story as the story unfolds through her eyes.   One day she saw her older sister, Cecilia, and Robbie Turner, the son of a servant, who is also a childhood friend of Cecilia flirt with each other.   Although Briony doesn t understand what it all means or implies, or how Cecilia, and Robbie adult interactions would lead to a relationship and a crime.   As Briony begins to tell the story, she doesRead MoreThe Things They Carried By Tim O Brien892 Words   |  4 Pagesthe war had on a variety of people: Jacqueline Navarra Rhoads, a former nurse during the Vietnam war, demonstrates these effects within her own memoir in the book, The Forgotten Veterans. Both sources exemplify many tribulations, while sharing a common thread of suffering from mental unpredictability. Desensitization and unstable morals are two main themes relevant not only throughout the novel, but in Jacqueline s personal story. Desensitization is one of many mental affects the Vietnam War causedRead MoreAn Evaluation of ‚Äà ºA Worn Path‚Äà ¹932 Words   |  4 PagesAn Evaluation of â€Å"A Worn Path† ENG125 07/22/12 The worn path written by Eudora Welty (1941) is a great short story about Phoenix Jackson, an old African American woman who beats all odds to make a trip into town for medicine for her grandson, she overcomes many challenges that test her courage and will. Because of her loyalty and love, Phoenix has sacrificed her own well-being on this dangerous path for the well-being of her grandson. The worn path theme is the love and dedicationRead MoreThe Film One Flew Over The Cuckoo s Nest1267 Words   |  6 Pagesdescribed in the book, like Nurse Ratched and Chief Bromden. There are also many events and incidents that happen in the book that do not happen in the movie. The movie includes a character or two that was not mentioned in the book and characters are portrayed differently than how they are in the book. The biggest difference between the film and the book is the story s point of view. Chief Bromden is the narrator in the novel. He unfolds the story of all the chaos between Nurse Ratched and Randle McMurphyRead MoreWilliam Shakespeare s Romeo And Juliet1636 Words   |  7 Pagesand values of many members from her family, the Capulets, which devise her to carry out decisions that she would not normally choose to act upon. Three characters have particularly had the strongest influence on Juliet, which are Lady Capulet, the Nurse, and Lord Capulet. In this play, Lady Capulet is very distant and unsupportive toward Juliet, which her and her materialistic values continue to negatively impact Juliet. Lady Capulet, with her values and attitudes encompassing image and reputation

A Review of 2001 a Space Odyssey Essay - 522 Words

2001: A Space Odyssey is just that: a long wandering voyage of the body and mind. Stanley Kubrick and Arthur C. Clark collaborated brilliantly. In examining both works, the film and the novel, there are certainly differences, yet the theme and overall idea coincide thoroughly. That this was made in the 1960s augments both accomplishments. The visuals, seen in 2004, are still captivating. What they mustve seemed like in 1968! I flout those who received this movie poorly in those days. Would I have received it as well without having a preconceived idea of its greatness? I can only hope I would have known what I was watching. It is rare a movie inspires me to read the novel it is based on. Here is one occasion. On my first viewing of the†¦show more content†¦At any rate, I was extremely pleased with the book, which brought about a need to see the film again. My second viewing heightened my reverence for Stanley Kubrick. What he chose to include, change and eliminate is crucial to the films success, as well as a tribute to his discretion. Clarkes novel does disentangle some details. There is no better way to completely realize the ascent to the Star Child than to read Clarkes final chapters. Still, cinematically, with no dialog or voice-over, Kubrick gives enough clues for an intelligent viewer to take in the concept. To a lesser extent, the trek Dave Bowman takes to another dimension/galaxy, which is explained in great detail in the book, cannot be fully construed visually. Still, you know whats happening when Bowman enters the wormhole. Your eyes are lucky, too. If you ever wanted to experience true psychedelia and havent the stomach for hallucinogens, heres your chance. 2001 originated from Clarkes short story, The Sentinel. This, in no way, takes away from the originality of the film. An obvious benediction of the movie is Kubricks use of music. The classical pieces intensify the sense of awe. From the ape man to the star child, the music detaches us from the events. We view them as we would events in a documentary. Kubrick deliberately adds, deletes and modifies. Hal never reads the lips of the astronauts in the book. This is a stroke of genius in the motionShow MoreRelatedReview Of Stanley Kubrick s 2001 : A Space Odyssey 1591 Words   |  7 Pagesthe film soundtrack is in either Forbidden Planet, Points in Space or 2001. Stanley Kubrick’s legendary film â€Å"2001 : A Space Odyssey† (1968) is an epic of space exploration and meditation on the possibility of extraterrestrial influence on the process of human evolution. The film is set in the near future at a time when the moon is colonised and space travel, at least around the planetary system, is quite usual. Kubrick said â€Å"2001 aspired not to the condition of a science fiction novel but toRead MoreThe Sentinel and 2001: a Space Odyssey1789 Words   |  8 Pagesauthors are able to create great visual images of locations and landscapes by using elaborate and descriptive words. Sometimes these images are transferred into an actual visual by the subsequent creation of films based upon these great works. â€Å"2001: A Space Odyssey† by Stanley Kubrick is an example of such as it is based upon the literary short story, â€Å"The Sentinel† by Arthur C. Clarke. Kubrick has done an astounding job at developing the original short story by combining music with visual images wayRead More2001 : A Space Odyssey1263 Words   |  6 Pagesâ€Å"2001: A space Odyssey† opens in the African Rift Valley, where a tribe of hominids encounter a stone monument which has obstructed on their domain. This stone monument transmits radio waves that end up expanding their IQ s, teaching the m weaponry and other tool uses to help them live, as they proceed to defeat a rival tribe. Four million years later, we see the luxurious space travel that the vintage science fiction of the 1960’s, with space stations for air terminals and such. Dr. Heywood FloydRead More Summary of 2001 A Space Odyssey and Personal Response Essay1819 Words   |  8 PagesSummary Review The title of this novel is 2001: A Space Odyssey, this amazing book was written by Arthur C. Clarke. Clarke has many degrees that allow him to give depth to the plot. Clarke has also written a lot of books, like the Space Odyssey series, Childhoods End, and many more. There are three major settings in this story. The first takes place on the moon, where the climax begins when TMA-1 is found. The second setting is the Inter-planetary ship Discovery, when it is on its way to oneRead More Stanley Kubrick Essays1577 Words   |  7 Pagesproduction on what was to become his crowning achievement, 2001: A Space Odyssey. Inspired equally by the story The Sentinel and the three questions â€Å"Where do I come from? Who am I? And Where am I going?† this 1968 film is a complex reflection on man’s instinctive desire for 5 violence. What Kubrick seems to be suggesting is that all human progress is linked to the satisfying of these instincts. When these are repressed, as in the society of 2001, man wastes away. Kubrick, through this film, pointsRead MoreThe Decline of Classical Hollywood Films888 Words   |  4 Pagesambiguous character â€Å"Counter-cultural† themes (i.e. Easy Rider) Themes uncertain and discomforting to audiences Bonnie and Clyde (1967) Story chronology may be scrambled or feature unsettling twist endings† Non - linearity story lines (i.e. 2001 A Space odyssey) Emphasis on irresolution and not â€Å"tying up loose ends† Emphasis on realism - locations / cinematography Off - location shooting (heightening the realism) Breakthroughs in film technology (35mm camera film) New use of editing as anRead MoreAvatar, By James Cameron Essay1358 Words   |  6 Pagestogether to fight and rescue Pandora from the threat of the antagonist. The setting is the environment in which the story takes place. In science fiction films, it is speculative and looks forward rather than backward; usually set in the future, in space, futuristic earth cities, or a post-apocalyptic environment, and almost always greatly affected by technology. Elements that make up the setting may include culture and its technologies, period including the future, place geography/astronomy, and natureRead MoreHeroin Drugs : A New Zealand And International Context Essay2530 Words   |  11 Pageseffects of heroin on the individual user can range from overdose, hepatitis B, C and contracting HIV as a result of shared needles (Louria et al., 1967; Mark, Woody, Juday Kleber, 2001, Sahni et al., 2008). Heroin overdose can also lead to death which can be preventable if medical treatment is provided within the space of 1 to 3 hours after the injection (Sporer, 1999). Death occurs when the cardiovascular system fails as opiates have a powerful depressant eff ect on the central nervous system (KhantzianRead MoreEssay on Stanley Kubrick: Artist, Explorer and Pioneer3777 Words   |  16 Pagesachieve. It is also for that reason that he is not completely accepted by the film industry. Kubrick is a film renaissance man. He learns through doing, not watching. Upon a movie’s release he is involved with the entire process – has been known to review each location where the film will be shown (Ciment 225). His intensity is well known throughout the industry. Actors who work with Kubrick can expect to shoot the same scene up to 50 times before getting it just right. To say that he is a perfectionistRead More The Ethics of Artificial Intelligence Essay2537 Words   |  11 Pagescontinue. Steps can be taken to prevent unethical uses of this technology, but the good that could come about as a result can out-weigh any potential downfall. Sound Clip: from 2001: A Space Odyssey: http://funwavs.com/movie/sounds/2001-a-space-odyssey/?page=4 Images: HAL 9000: http://www.palantir.net/2001/gallery/mission.html Terminator 3 movie poster: http://romanticmovies.about.com/library/weekly/blt3picsj.htm Doctor and computer: http://www.mdr-inc.com/doctor%20with%20computer

The Ageing Of Global Population - 1692 Words

Larissa Intrebartoli Resende Professor Bud Lewis Writing - Gold B2 30 July 2015 World Aging Population The ageing of global population is an important issue that has been debated recently. To think about a better and longer life seems too attractive for us, but the impact of a generalized increase of age can be a problem for the government s policies and for the maintenance of the economy. This phenomenon is occurring right now in almost every country in the world, but faster in the developed and developing countries. The purpose of this paper is to study the population ageing, especially what are its causes, effects and what we can predict and do about the future. Besides, this paper get more emphasis to the changes on Brazil’s populace between 1970 and 2010, Brazil is a developing country and it is a good example to go a little deeper on this topic. AGING POPULATION: MAIN CAUSES When the number of adults and elderly people begin to increase at the same time births begin to decrease, a process of aging starts to affect the population. The life expectancy increased significantly, this kind of measure should and will be analyzed according to the specifics life conditions of each country or region, but a global measure is useful to illustrate the issue. Thus, whereas in 1950-1955 the global life expectancy was 47.7 years, in 2005-2010 it was 67.9. This fact is mainly due to advances in medicine and improvement of life conditions, which also contributes to mortalityShow MoreRelatedGlobal Pattern of Ageing Populations846 Words   |  3 PagesTask 1: Identify a global pattern of either youthful or ageing populations Youthful populations are dispersed unevenly around the world. They tend to be concentrated in regions such as Asia and Africa. The least developed the country is, the more likely is it to have a youthful population. There are a few exceptions in Asia such as China because of their one child policy and Japan because it is a developed country. Japan is developing stage 3. South of the Sahara in Africa there is a cluster ofRead MoreThe Global Population Is Ageing At An Alarming Rate2024 Words   |  9 PagesThe global population is ageing at an alarming rate, with over eight precent of the world’s population over 65 and this number is expected to double by the year 2030 (International Federation for Social Workers, 2012). For Huffnung et. al. (2010), late adulthood encompasses the years following 65 and is characterised by a period of substantial decline in functioning including physical, psychological and social. Whilst dementia is not an inevitable part of the ageing process , it has however due toRead MoreGlobal population ageing means that by 2050 over 60s will comprise 22% of the world population at 2700 Words   |  3 PagesGlobal population ageing means that by 2050 over 60s will comprise 22% of the world population at 2 billion (Banister et al, 2012). A report prepared by the Population Division for the World Assembly on Ageing in 2002 shows that population ageing is unpredecedented, pervasive and enduring, having a wide range of consequences for many countries and governments (UN). This wide spread phenomenon, therefore has many implications and this essay studies these in terms of economic, social, environmentalRead MoreIntroduction Of Late Adulthood And Retirement1659 Words   |  7 Pagesseen an increase with people age sixty and above. Consequently, this aging population has significant effects on many aspect of society. Life expectancy which was of 50 years in the 19th century had tremendously increase. Indeed the factors contributing to the longevity include; public health measure to many factors such as decrease in infant mortality rate, and the eradication of certain diseases. Population ageing is a global phenomenon that can be expressed by the significant demographic changesRead MoreTaking a Look at Cataracts1127 Words   |  4 PagesOrganization (n.d.) defines cataract as the clouding of the lens of the eyes, which prevents clear vision. Although most cases are related to the ageing process, occasionally children can be born with the condition, or a cataract may develop after eye injuries, inflammation, and some other eye diseases (WHO, n.d.). With the increasing ageing population around the world, it has become a major public health concern with the number of cataract cases increasing at the same rate (Mukesh, Le, DimitrovRead MoreHow Will An Ageing Population Have An Effect On Australia And The Economy?882 Words   |  4 PagesHow will an ageing population have an effect on Australia and the economy? P1 A major demographic change impacting Australia is the ageing population, it is expected that this change will accelerate over the coming years. (Corcoranb Hana, 2014 pp. 2) The process of this begun during the post-war period and has started to impact Australia’s ability to cater to an ageing population. This is a result of the baby boomer generation beginning the transition from their work life into retirement. (CorcoranbRead MoreThe Problem Of Ageing Population Essay979 Words   |  4 Pagesare having longer life due to economic well-being, better nutrition and improvement of medical facilities. Ageing population has entailed an increasing share of old persons in the population. However, longer life expectancy has resulted in the ageing of population and has caused worldwide concerns of the problems it may consequently arouse. The two major reasons of the ageing population trend are the rising longevity and the decline of fertility rate. If the proportion of elderly pe ople continuesRead MoreHealthcare Providers And Policy Makers1562 Words   |  7 Pagesin LDCs will have to act upon in order to avoid a drastic future for their ageing populations. First and foremost the information gap on geriatrics needs to be bridged. Researchers in less developed nations are barely scratching the surface on the specific conditions that are more common among older populations. While in more developed nations, their peers are only beginning to understand the extent of the global ageing challenge. LDC governments should invest in nationwide surveys and studiesRead MoreDevelopment of the Industry1073 Words   |  4 Pagesthe top 10 of the wealthiest management markets by 2020 with 1.6 million millionaire households (Deloitte, 2011). It is expected to be the fastest growing developing market with the growth rate of 13% as against US which will rank 9th in the list of global leaders of markets (Deloitte, 2011). The average annual growth rate of household wealth is about 13%, half of which is credited to the exchange rate appreciation (Credit Suisse, 2013). Source: (Credit Suisse, 2013) The wealth per adult of AustraliaRead MoreTarget Market For Personal Care Products1181 Words   |  5 Pagesspite of the fact that, it is surprising that maturing population will be the main customers of the personal care products., yet it is an undeniable authentic fact. The current global population of ageing people is around 606 million. However, by 2050 it will reach 2 billion. Most of the ageing people live in developed countries. They are 37% of entire European population. These statistics exhibit how important have become ageing population for marketers of personal care products. So the key demographic

Evolution of Management Theory Free Essays

string(268) " in almost equal shares, with each group taking over the work for which it is best fitted Administrative Management Whereas scientific management focused on the productivity of individuals, the classical administrative approach concentrates on the total organization\." ABSTRACT In this paper, we examine how management theory concerning appropriate management practices has evolved in modern times, and look at the central concerns that have guided its development. First, we examine the so-called classical management theories that emerged around the turn of the twentieth century. These include scientific management, which focuses on matching people and tasks to maximize efficiency; and administrative management, which focuses on identifying the principles that will lead to the creation of the most efficient system of organization and management. We will write a custom essay sample on Evolution of Management Theory or any similar topic only for you Order Now Next, we consider behavioural management theories, developed both before and after the Second World War, which focus on how managers should lead and control their workforces to increase performance. Then we discuss management science theory, which developed during the Second World War and which has become increasingly important as researchers have developed rigorous analytical and quantitative techniques to help managers measure and control organizational performance. Finally, we discuss business in the 1960s and 1970s and focus on the theories that were developed to help explain how the external environment affects the way organizations and managers operate. By the end of this chapter, one would understand the ways in which Management Theory has evolved over time. You will also understand how economic, political, and cultural forces have affected the development of these theories and the ways in which managers and their organizations behave. INTRODUCTION Changes in management practices occur as managers, theorists, researchers, and consultants seek new ways to increase organizational efficiency and effectiveness. The driving force behind the evolution of management theory is the search for better ways to utilize organizational resources. Advances in management theory typically occur as managers and researchers find better ways to perform the principal management tasks: planning, organizing, leading, and controlling human and other organizational resources. The evolution of modern management began in the closing decades of the nineteenth century, after the industrial revolution had swept through Europe, Canada, and the United States. In the new economic climate, managers of all types of organizations—political, educational, and economic—were increasingly trying to find better ways to satisfy customers’ needs. Many major economic, technical, and cultural changes were taking place at this time. The introduction of steam power and the development of sophisticated machinery and equipment changed the way in which goods were produced, particularly in the weaving and clothing industries. Small workshops run by skilled workers who produced hand-manufactured products (a system called crafts production) were being replaced by large factories in which sophisticated machines controlled by hundreds or even thousands of unskilled or semiskilled workers made products. Owners and managers of the new factories found themselves unprepared for the challenges accompanying the change from small-scale crafts production to large-scale mechanized manufacturing. Many of the managers and supervisors had only a technical orientation, and were unprepared for the social problems that occur when people work together in large groups (as in a factory or shop system). Managers began to search for new techniques to manage their organizations’ resources, and soon they began to focus on ways to increase the efficiency of the worker–task mix. CLASSICAL MANAGEMENT THEORIES One of the first schools of management thought, the classical management theory, developed during the Industrial Revolution when new problems related to the factory system began to appear. Managers were unsure of how to train employees (many of them non-English speaking immigrants) or deal with increased labor dissatisfaction, so they began to test solutions. As a result, the classical management theory developed from efforts to find the â€Å"one best way† to perform and manage tasks. This school of thought is made up of two branches: scientific and administrative management, described in the following sections: Scientific Management Scientific Management arose because of the need to increase productivity and efficiency. The emphasis was on trying to find the best way to get the most work done by examining how the work process was actually accomplished and by scrutinizing the skills of the workforce. The classical scientific school owes its roots to several major contributors, including Frederick Taylor, Henry Gantt, and Frank and Lillian Gilbreth. Frederick Taylor is often called the â€Å"father of scientific management. † Taylor believed that organizations should study tasks and develop precise procedures. Also, he developed an incentive system that paid workers more money for meeting the new standard. As a result, many theorists followed Taylor’s philosophy when developing their own principles of management. Henry Gantt, an associate of Taylor’s, developed the Gantt chart, a bar graph that measures planned and completed work along each stage of production. Based on time instead of quantity, volume, or weight, this visual display chart has been a widely used planning and control tool since its development in 1910. Frank and Lillian Gilbreth, a husband-and-wife team, studied job motions. In Frank’s early career as an apprentice bricklayer, he was interested in standardization and method study. He watched bricklayers and saw that some workers were slow and inefficient, while others were very productive. He discovered that each bricklayer used a different set of motions to lay bricks. From his observations, Frank isolated the basic movements necessary to do the job and eliminated unnecessary motions. Workers using these movements raised their output from 1,000 to 2,700 bricks per day. This was the first motion study designed to isolate the best possible method of performing a given job. Later, Frank and his wife Lillian studied job motions using a motion-picture camera and a split-second clock. When her husband died at the age of 56, Lillian continued their work. Thanks to these contributors and others, the basic ideas regarding scientific management developed. They include the following: †¢ Developing new standard methods for doing each job †¢ Selecting, training, and developing workers instead of allowing them to choose their own tasks and train themselves †¢ Developing a spirit of cooperation between workers and management to ensure that work is carried out in accordance with devised procedures †¢ Dividing work between orkers and management in almost equal shares, with each group taking over the work for which it is best fitted Administrative Management Whereas scientific management focused on the productivity of individuals, the classical administrative approach concentrates on the total organization. You read "Evolution of Management Theory" in category "Papers" The emphasis is on the development of managerial principles rather than work methods. Co ntributors to this school of thought include Max Weber, Henri Fayol, Mary Parker Follett, and Chester I. Barnard. These theorists studied the flow of information within an organization and emphasized the importance of understanding how an organization operated. In the late 1800s, Max Weber disliked that many European organizations were managed on a â€Å"personal† family-like basis and that employees were loyal to individual supervisors rather than to the organization. He believed that organizations should be managed impersonally and that a formal organizational structure, where specific rules were followed, was important. In other words, he didn’t think that authority should be based on a person’s personality. He thought authority should be something that was part of a person’s job and passed from individual to individual as one person left and another took over. This non-personal, objective form of organization was called a bureaucracy. Weber believed that all bureaucracies have the following characteristics: †¢ A well-defined hierarchy †¢ Division of labor and specialization †¢ Rules and regulations. †¢ Impersonal relationships between managers and employees. †¢ Competence. †¢ Records. Henri Fayol, a French mining engineer, developed 14 principles of management based on his management experiences. These principles provide modern-day managers with general guidelines on how a supervisor should organize her department and manage her staff. Although later research has created controversy over many of the following principles, they are still widely used in management theories. They are: †¢ Division of work †¢ Authority and responsibility †¢ Discipline †¢ Unity of command †¢ Unity of direction †¢ Subordination of individual interest to general interest †¢ Remuneration of personnel †¢ Centralization †¢ Scalar chain †¢ Order †¢ Equity †¢ Stability of tenure of personnel †¢ Initiative †¢ Esprit de corps Mary Parker Follett stressed the importance of an organization establishing common goals for its employees. However, she also began to think somewhat differently than the other theorists of her day, discarding command-style hierarchical organizations where employees were treated like robots. She began to talk about such things as ethics, power, and leadership. She encouraged managers to allow employees to participate in decision making. She stressed the importance of people rather than techniques — a concept very much before her time. As a result, she was a pioneer and often not taken seriously by management scholars of her time. But times change and innovative ideas from the past suddenly take on new meanings. Much of what managers do today is based on the fundamentals that Follett established more than 80 years ago. Chester Barnard, who was president of New Jersey Bell Telephone Company, introduced the idea of the informal organization — cliques (exclusive groups of people) that naturally form within a company. He felt that these informal organizations provided necessary and vital communication functions for the overall organization and that they could help the organization accomplish its goals. Barnard felt that it was particularly important for managers to develop a sense of common purpose where a willingness to cooperate is strongly encouraged. He is credited with developing the acceptance theory of management, which emphasizes the willingness of employees to accept that managers have legitimate authority to act. Barnard felt that four factors affected the willingness of employees to accept authority: †¢ The employees must understand the communication. †¢ The employees accept the communication as being consistent with the organization’s purposes. †¢ The employees feel that their actions will be consistent with the needs and desires of the other employees. †¢ The employees feel that they are mentally and physically able to carry out the order. Barnard’s sympathy for and understanding of employee needs positioned him as a bridge to the behavioral school of management, the next school of thought to emerge. Behavioral Management Theory As management research continued in the 20th century, questions began to come up regarding the interactions and motivations of the individual within organizations. Management principles developed during the classical period were simply not useful in dealing with many management situations and could not explain the behavior of individual employees. In short, classical theory ignored employee motivation and behavior. As a result, the behavioral school was a natural outgrowth of this revolutionary management experiment. The  behavioral management theory  is often called the human relations movement because it addresses the human dimension of work. Behavioral theorists believed that a better understanding of human behavior at work, such as motivation, conflict, expectations, and group dynamics, improved productivity. The theorists who contributed to this school viewed employees as individuals, resources, and assets to be developed and worked with — not as machines, as in the past. Several individuals and experiments contributed to this theory. Elton Mayo’s  contributions came as part of the  Hawthorne studies,  a series of experiments that rigorously applied classical management theory only to reveal its shortcomings. The Hawthorne experiments consisted of two studies conducted at the Hawthorne Works of the Western Electric Company in Chicago from 1924 to 1932. The first study was conducted by a group of engineers seeking to determine the relationship of lighting levels to worker productivity. Surprisingly enough, they discovered that worker productivity increased as the lighting levels decreased — that is, until the employees were unable to see what they were doing, after which performance naturally declined. A few years later, a second group of experiments began. Harvard researchers Mayo and F. J. Roethlisberger supervised a group of five women in a bank wiring room. They gave the women special privileges, such as the right to leave their workstations without permission, take rest periods, enjoy free lunches, and have variations in pay levels and workdays. This experiment also resulted in significantly increased rates of productivity. In this case, Mayo and Roethlisberger concluded that the increase in productivity resulted from the supervisory arrangement rather than the changes in lighting or other associated worker benefits. Because the experimenters became the primary supervisors of the employees, the intense interest they displayed for the workers was the basis for the increased motivation and resulting productivity. Essentially, the experimenters became a part of the study and influenced its outcome. This is the origin of the term  Hawthorne effect,  which describes the special attention researchers give to a study’s subjects and the impact that attention has on the study’s findings. The general conclusion from the Hawthorne studies was that human relations and the social needs of workers are crucial aspects of business management. This principle of human motivation helped revolutionize theories and practices of management. Abraham Maslow,  a practicing psychologist, developed one of the most widely recognized  need theories,  a theory of motivation based upon a consideration of human needs. His theory of human needs had three assumptions: †¢ Human needs are never completely satisfied. †¢ Human behavior is purposeful and is motivated by the need for satisfaction. †¢ Needs can be classified according to a hierarchical structure of importance, from the lowest to highest. Maslow broke down the needs hierarchy into five specific areas: †¢ Physiological needs. Maslow grouped all physical needs necessary for maintaining basic human well-being, such as food and drink, into this category. After the need is satisfied, however, it is no longer is a motivator. †¢ Safety needs. These needs include the need for basic security, stability, protection, and freedom from fear. A normal state exists for an individual to have all these needs generally satisfied. Otherwise, they become primary motivators. †¢ Belonging and love needs. After the physical and safety needs are satisfied and are no longer motivators, the need for belonging and love emerges as a primary motivator. The individual strives to establish meaningful relationships with significant others. †¢ Esteem needs. An individual must develop self-confidence and wants to achieve status, reputation, fame, and glory. Self-actualization needs. Assuming that all the previous needs in the hierarchy are satisfied, an individual feels a need to find himself. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory helped managers visualize employee motivation. Douglas McGregor  was heavily influenced by both the Hawthorne studies and Maslow. He believed that two basic kinds of managers exist. One type, the Theory X manager, has a negative view of employees and assumes that they are lazy, untrustworthy, and incapable of assuming responsibility. On the other hand, the Theory Y manager assumes that employees are not only trustworthy and capable of assuming responsibility, but also have high levels of motivation. An important aspect of McGregor’s idea was his belief that managers who hold either set of assumptions can create  self-fulfilling prophecies  Ã¢â‚¬â€ that through their behavior, these managers create situations where subordinates act in ways that confirm the manager’s original expectations. As a group, these theorists discovered that people worked for inner satisfaction and not materialistic rewards, shifting the focus to the role of individuals in an organization’s performance. Management Science Theory Management science theory is a contemporary approach to management that focuses on the use of rigorous quantitative techniques to help managers make maximum use of organizational resources to produce goods and services. In essence, management science theory is a contemporary extension of scientific management, which, as developed by Taylor, also took a quantitative approach to measuring the worker–task mix in order to raise efficiency. There are many branches of management science; each of them deals with a specific set of concerns: †¢ Quantitative management utilizes mathematical techniques—such as linear and nonlinear programming, modelling, simulation, queuing theory, and chaos theory—to help managers decide, for example, how much inventory to hold at different times of the year, where to locate a new factory, and how best to invest an organization’s financial capital. †¢ Operations management (or operations research) provides managers with a set of techniques that they can use to analyze any aspect of an organization’s production system to increase efficiency. Total quality management (TQM) focuses on analyzing an organization’s input, conversion, and output activities to increase product quality. †¢ Management information systems (MIS) help managers design information systems that provide information about events occurring inside the organization as well as in its external environment—information that is vital for effective decision making. All these subfields of management science provide tools and techniques that managers can use to help improve the quality of their decision making and increase efficiency and effectiveness. Organizational Environment Theory An important milestone in the history of management thought occurred when researchers went beyond the study of how managers can influence behavior within organizations to consider how managers control the organization’s relationship with its external environment, or organizational environment—the set of forces and conditions that operate beyond an organization’s boundaries but affect a manager’s ability to acquire and utilize resources. Resources in the organizational environment include the raw materials and skilled people that an organization requires to produce goods and services, as well as the support of groups including customers who buy these goods and services and provide the organization with financial resources. One way of determining the relative success of an organization is to consider how effective its managers are at obtaining scarce and valuable resources. The importance of studying the environment became clear after the development of open-systems theory and contingency theory during the 1960s Contingency Theory Another milestone in management theory was the development of contingency theory in the 1960s by Tom Burns and G. M. Stalker in the United Kingdom and Paul Lawrence and Jay Lorsch in the United States. 39 The crucial message of contingency theory is that there is no one best way to organize: The organizational structures and the control systems that managers choose depend on—are contingent on—characteristics of the external environment in which the organization operates. According to contingency theory, the characteristics of the environment affect an organization’s ability to obtain resources. To maximize the likelihood of gaining access to resources, managers must allow an organization’s departments to organize and control their activities in ways most likely to allow them to obtain resources, given the constraints of the particular environment they face. In other words, how managers design the organizational hierarchy, choose a control system, and lead and motivate their employees is contingent on the characteristics of the organizational environment. CONCLUSION The search for efficiency started with the study of how managers could improve person–task relationships to increase efficiency. The concept of job specialization and division of labour remains the basis for the design of work settings in modern organizations. New developments like lean production and total quality management are often viewed as advances on the early scientific management principles developed by Taylor and the Gilbreths. Max Weber and Henri Fayol outlined principles of bureaucracy and administration that are as relevant to managers today as when they were written at the turn of the twentieth century. Much of modern management research refines these principles to suit contemporary conditions. For example, the increasing interest in the use of cross-departmental teams and the empowerment of workers are issues that managers also faced a century ago. Researchers have described many different approaches to managerial behaviour, including Theories X and Y. Often, the managerial behaviour that researchers suggest reflects the context of their own historical era and culture. Mary Parker Follett advocated managerial behaviours that did not reflect accepted modes of managerial behaviour at the time, but her work was largely ignored until conditions changed. The various branches of management science theory provide rigorous quantitative techniques that give managers more control over their organization’s use of resources to produce goods and services. The importance of studying the organization’s external environment became clear after the development of open-systems theory and contingency theory during the 1960s. A main focus of contemporary management research is to find methods to help managers improve the way they utilize organizational resources and compete successfully in the global environment. Strategic management and total quality management are two important approaches intended to help managers make better use of organizational resources. REFERENCES CliffsNotes. com, (2013). Classical Schools of Management. http://www. cliffsnotes. com/study_guide/topicArticleId-8944,articleId-8851. html. David Sibbet, (1997). 75 Years of Management Ideas and Practice. Supplement, Harvard Business Review, Reprint number 97500. David Stauffer,  (2011). An Overview of Management Theories. http://www. ernsanalysis. com/sjsu/ise250/history. htm James Swartz, (1994). Evolution of Management Thought. Productivity Press, Portland OR Lyndsay Swinton, (2010). Frederick W. Taylor: Master of Scientific Management. http://www. skymark. com/resources/leaders/taylor. asp M. Bosman, (2010). Historical Evolution of Management Theory. http://www. scribd. com/doc/37785213/Evolution-of-Management-Theory Prof. M. Thenmozhi, (2007). EVOLUTION OF MANAGEMENT THEORY. Indian Institute of Technology, Madras. How to cite Evolution of Management Theory, Papers

Poetry in the Romantic Era Essay Example For Students

Poetry in the Romantic Era Essay Blake was said to see animals as symbols of Gods kindness (lamb) and in this case, Gods evil (tiger). He is exploring the question of the goodness of God. Is he all good and pure or Is he more similar to humans and has both sides to him, good and bad. The entire poem uses such delicate and mysterious language. The poem Is soaked in ambiance and spirituality which I find to be rare in other poems Ive read from the text book. The next three stanzas focus on where God came from in distant deeps or skies and like the stricture this allows you to paint in your head. Another verse in the next three stanzas that I like is In what furnace was thy brain? asking the question is god physical. My favorite two lines of the poem are When the stars threw down their spears, and watered haven with their tears because of the glorious visual It paints for you of the creation of our world through Flakes eyes. The poem concludes with a reference question to lamb (good) and tiger (evil) and if God has crafted both of these animals. The last stanza is the same stanza it begins with, depicting the beauty and danger of the Tiger. Brahmas is much more indirect about questioning the origins of man. You would need to understand the Hindu culture on some level before being able to understand what he Is trying to convey. Shadow and sunlight are the same Is a comparison that means that Brahmas (himself) is everywhere in both the light and the dark. Or two contrasting forces, brahmas exists there. l am the doubter and the doubt is one of my favorite lines in this poem be cause it continues that contradicting theme that is reign to Western beliefs. T The poem explores God but on a different level and it also explores the God that is placed In every one of us. The poem concludes with Its most poetic statement Find me, and turn thy back on heaven which I do not know exactly how to Interpret, but I love what I think it means and how it sounds when you read it. In some ways I see that as meaning find me and you will find what you wanted to find in your idea of heaven. Overall the poem is not as poetic but more like reading scripture. I like both styles. In Flakes poem his Western views come across dramatically. The belief in one referenced in Brahmas, The strong Gods one for my abode, and pine in vain the sacred Seven. The language and style of both poems is drastically different however. In Flakes poem there is a sense of familiarity in the way he has tried to make it beautiful and pleasing to read. In Emerson poem it seems less for the reader and more for the purpose of writing a poem about sacred things. Both of them are intended to indulge into the most mysterious subject of literature, God.