Supply Chain Management and Modern Technologies

Introduction The requirements of the marketplace when conducting supply chain management is largely dependent on whether an organisation is in need of pursuing either the lean or agile paradigms. The two supply chain parameters are distinctively different. For instance, in terms of the market winner, the agile paradigm is tagged on availability while the lean one is pegged on cost.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Supply Chain Management and Modern Technologies specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In other words, nimbleness in a market that is overly sensitive works well in an agile supply chain contrary to the lean supply chain where waste definition is the clear cut line.  Another important parameter in supply chain management is the proper location of decoupling points. This is imperative bearing in mind that there is need to engineer a hybrid supply chain where both materials and information can flow smoothly f orm the point of production to consumption. When the latter is effectively implemented, it will enhance positive outcome associated with both types of supply chain. For example, efficiency will be visible in a lean system while the agile supply chain will encourage an effective supply downstream. There are quite a number of supply chain management technologies that have been adopted in the contemporary business spheres. One such technology is the use of RFID to track down materials or products from the point of production or sale to the end user. The only loophole in the application of RFID in supply chain management seems to be emanating from outside such as lack of specified standards, security and privacy considerations, false promises as well as marketing problems. This business report offers a succinct critique of Naylor et al article on the application of lean and agile (leagile) supply chain management. Additionally, the paper discusses how RFID and other modern supply chain technologies such as e-commerce, CPER and VMI can be used to mitigate against the bull-whip effect in supply chain performance. Critique / Literature Review Perhaps, it is pertinent to begin this literature review and critique by defining each of the supply chain paradigms. Although Naylor et al (1999) attempts to define agility simply as supply chain management processes that enhance effectiveness and performance in organizations, it is vital to emphasize that business enterprises that pursue this kind of supply have much more to encounter and implement.Advertising Looking for report on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The Flexible Manufacturing Systems (FMS) is indeed the origin of this concept. Sometimes back, manufacturing flexibility was thought to be only possible through automation. This idea did not last for long since it was later extended to incorporate other important factors in business that wou ld influence rapid changes through product mix or volume. Hence, the concept of agility in supply chain management has taken a sharp turn especially in regard to its composition and functionality. Hence, Naylor et al (1999) ought to have incorporated all the supply chain elements that affect the agile paradigm. While the authors have thinly differentiated agility and leanness in supply chain management, the two paradigms have a visible difference both in terms of application and effect in supply chain management. When referring to leanness, a supply chain management focuses more to do with producing more using fewer resources. In fact, Naylor et al (1999) reiterate that the â€Å"just-in-time† approach or zero inventories is usually associated with leanness especially in manufacturing. Although the latter terms are precise to use, a more relevant philosophy to use is Minimum Reasonable Inventory (MRI) since it is rather practical bearing in mind that â€Å"leanness† re fers to the most minimal use of available resources to produce more. On the other hand, it is quite impossible to separate the two paradigms, not to mention the fact that the agile supply chain is very common in business enterprises that have adopted lean manufacturing. This is paradoxical having highlighted the outstanding difference between the two supply chain tools. The point at which lean manufacturing starts can be practically traced by the Toyota Production System (TPS). (Heinrich, 2005). This company largely targeted at eliminating and reducing waste in its manufacturing portfolio as one way of boosting production and hence manufacturing in its manufacturing portfolio.  It is highly likely that the article by Naylor et al (1999) has laid much emphasis on the positive returns of lean thinking to factory production. In any case, it is worth to note that manufacturing practices among several business organizations across the globe have been improved due to the lessons gained from TPS guidelines. Thus, restricting the benefits to factories per se may be myopic, so to speak. In connection to this, it is possible to encounter a situation whereby less working hours is spent against higher output in the production and supply of vehicles in a factory whereas the stock of finished vehicles may take up until three months to clear in terms of sale. Again, this is another paradox in the supply chain management when deliberating on both lean and agile paradigms at the same time. Therefore, leanness, as much as it is unique from agility, can still be integrated in a scenario whereby an organization wants to attain both efficiency and effectiveness simultaneously.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Supply Chain Management and Modern Technologies specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The strategy used in supply chin and of course manufacturing should be that which fall between market winners and market qualifiers (Heinrich, 2005). The two concepts are well covered by Naylor et al (1999). In other descriptions, the two parameters have also been highlighted as order qualifiers and order winners. In retrospect, any organization entering a manufacturing field should deliberate on the requisite baselines to compete favourable in an open market economy as it is the case with the current effect brought about by globalization. These prior considerations are referred to as order qualifiers. On the other hand, gaining market strength and equitable share of the market demands certain unique flexibilities also referred to as order winners. Supposedly, the most appropriate manufacturing strategy can only be met when both the order winners and order qualifiers is brought into light. Unfortunately, Naylor et al (1999) does not explicitly underscore the two concepts that would prepare a ground for vibrant supply chain management. In real sense, companies do not compete; rather, it is the supply c hains. Thus, it is quite tricky to elude the connection between agile and lean as well as winners and qualifiers. In a more simplistic term, the lean supply chain will carry the day if the element of cost is factored in the process. However, service value coupled with customer satisfaction is of critical importance when discussing agile paradigm. At this point, there is a lot of concurrence with the article by Naylor et al (1999).  In appendix I, the two paradigms have been illustrated in terms of their terse differences. Such a â€Å"compare and approach† approach is necessary in creating a clear cut difference as well as similarity between the supply chain paradigms (see appendix II). Product quality level is an equal requirement in both lean and agile supply chain contrary to what Naylor et al (1999) propose. Whilst leanness is overly concerned with reducing or alleviating the level of waste in course of supply, the quality of either goods or services produced cannot be compromised. This also applies to lead-times especially between the times when a client places an order and when the delivery is finally effected. Agility too, demands that the total lead time be lowered to what may be referred to as the â€Å"irreducible minimum†. The only challenge when this requirement has to be applied in an agile supply chain is the difficulty in forecasting and the high level of volatile associated with predicting the total lead-time. Naylor et al (1999) also confirm that marketplace demand will be cumbersome to exploit if the end-to-end lead-time is extremely long and possibly wasteful in the supply process. The vertical distribution channel has been the supply chain art of Dell for long. It solely distributes its products. Through the use of internet or telephone, customers are able to start off the process of buying. Three modes of selling are applicable at Dell namely keyboard-to-server, ear-to-ear and face-to-face (Dell Fedman, 1999).Advertising Looking for report on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The lead-time is usually specified by the company representative although in practice, it takes a much shorter time to deliver the product than earlier specified in the inquiry. Computers at Dell are built according to customer’s specifications.  In order to satisfy the orders placed by customers, the company makes use of an agile supply chain paradigm. Additionally, the inventory is not finished while the entire business platform takes the form of a direct model. The component inventory is also kept to the lowest level possible as one way of beating the competition in terms of prices. Indeed, this is a clear cut example on how both the lean and agile supply chains can be incorporated in an organization in order to simultaneously boost efficiency and effectiveness. The lean approach at Dell is also evident when the company applies vertical integration in its supply chain management (Heinrich, 2005). Subsequently, the company has facilitated cost reduction as a way of reduci ng wastes. For instance, an agile supplier has been mandated to build relatively standard monitors. As such, the company may require as much as 9,547 pieces of monitors today from its agile supplier while in few days time, demand as low as 760. RFID for Supply Chain Performance Improvements Evolution, both socially and economically, is a daily experience that is encountered both at the individual and societal level. One of the visible fronts in evolution is the advances made in technology and especially in supply chain management. Technological sophistication has continually improved consumer experience not to mention the mammoth benefits to suppliers and manufacturers. In particular, the use of the Radio Frequency Identification Devices (RFID) has created real world awareness in the managing supply chain. This technology is used to track down the design or unique product characteristics right from the point of production throughout the supply chain. Additionally, RFID is capable of either actively or passively transmitting the product information regardless of space and time. Indeed, the technology has been used to minimize theft of goods alongside avoiding improper shipment sizes. By using RFID technology, it is possible to ensure that the products will arrive at their point of destination with minimum hitch in addition to giving a better forecast especially of the delivery time to consumers. An organization can also use this device for impose restrictions to entering certain points within a building. It can also be useful in assessing the exit and entry times for employees.  Modern business indeed requires the implementation of RFID technology and especially in regard to improving product awareness throughout the supply chain management. When variability in the demand order are overly increased or amplified as they progress through the chain of supply, it results into the bullwhip effect (Heinrich, 2005). In actual practice, the bullwhip effect is common when vital information is distorted as the supply chain is distorted. Worse still, such distortion is also a major cause of supply chain inefficiencies and failure experienced in some establishments. When companies thoroughly evaluate, assess and comprehend the latent causes of bullwhip effect, they can effectively counteract this scenario. To this end, can RFID technologies assist in reducing the bullwhip effect in any way? Currently, industry leaders are in the forefront of implementing strategies that are innovative in nature such as the use of RFID tracking tool to facilitate smooth and unrestricted flow of information. This has been covered under the integration of new information systems (Heinrich, 2005). Moreover, new measurement and incentive systems in addition to giving a better definition to organizational relationship have been applied to counter the bullwhip effect.  In respect to new information systems, RFID has played an integral role in supply chain management. Th e RFID passive tags contain vital information of the product. As part and parcel of reducing the bullwhip effect in its supply chain, Dell Inc. has embraced the use of RFID technology. Today, the company stands out as one of the well established computer and electronics manufacturer worldwide (Dell Fedman, 1999). The six manufacturing plants of the company employ over 50,000 employees spread across different locations in the world. As already mentioned, the company makes use of the idea on supply and demand depending on the orders placed by customers to drive sales. As the chairman and founder of Dell, Michael Dell confessed, the ability to obtain real-time data courtesy of RFID technology has indeed improved the working efficiency of the company in addition to boosting revenue growth of the company (Heinrich, 2005). Currently, the company is fast on plans to decommission the old techniques that have been used in its supply chain for long and embrace better RFID technologies that h ave proved to be both effective and efficient in manufacturing and service delivery portfolios. In practice, the RFID technology being used at Dell has enabled customers to keep a close vigil of their purchases and how everything is progress from the assembly time, shipment and eventually to delivery. In all of these processes, human beings are minimally involved thereby reducing the possible additional workforce that the company would require as part of customer support.  Realistically speaking, such an arrangement would significantly reduce or even completely eliminate the bullwhip effect. Furthermore, congestion in warehouses has been a thing of the past bearing in mind that Dell has fully engaged itself in the manufacture of most computer hardware and software being sold. The real world awareness created by RFID technology has greatly improved the supply chain management logistics leading to extreme success of the company.  The United States Department of Defence is also kee n in the implementation of RFID technologies especially in the handing and tracking down of its ammunitions, weapons and military rations. The department has realized that less time is spent when RFID is used as compared to the ordinary means of inventory processing. The maintenance of material, asset visibility, items management as well as improvement in data quality has been necessitated with the use of the RFID technology. Using RFID to Complement Existing Technologies Concepts There are quite a number of supply chain technologies. However, the use of RFID can indeed boost the viability of other technologies and concepts being used in supply chain management. For instance, supply chain management is currently employing E-commerce, Decentralized Software Service Protocol (DSSP), Electronic Data Interchange (EDI), internet, Vendor Managed Inventory (VMI) and Customer Premise Equipment (CPE). The lean and agile paradigms in supply chain are also important parameters when integratin g RFID technology since the latter is one of the success factors in supply chain IT. For example, the process of gathering information from the manufacturing to the delivery point requires a more real time data analysis and transmission (Attaran, 2007). This is in effect similar to the case scenario on how E-commerce is carried out at Dell inc. the use of RFID at this point is vital since all the parties engage in the transaction will be visible enough in the entire supply chain process. Additionally, RFID will improve E-commerce undertakings in the sense that it will be possible to expedite the assessment of orders by retailers as well as monitor possible delays.  Secondly, E-commerce that has integrated the use of RFID technologies will be able to put in place a standardization process that will be able to identify products across various industries and companies. A single contact point can be used to access data in the system since there is need for uniformity of the much neede d information by consumers. When old forms of technologies such as telephones are used, there can be slight differences in the information passed verbally and the actual specifications of the product being purchased. A robust RFID structure in internet use will also facilitate quick analysis of system data as well as improve planning that is needed in strategic decision making. Of utmost importance here is the Supplier Relationship Management (SRM) and Customer Relationship Management (CRM) whereby business processes can be integrated real time (Attaran, 2007).  In terms of lean and agile supply chain tools, a collaborative approach between companies and supplies has been found to highly beneficial and that companies that exercise this approach usually outperform their competitors. In order to boost profitability and innovation as well as maintain a high quality supply chain in the procurement and sourcing processes, the adoption and full implementation of RFID technologies alongs ide other supply chain management tools such as Customer Premise Equipment (CPE) and Vendor Managed Inventory (VMI) cannot be ignored or underestimated. A Supplier Relationship Management System (SRM) when well utilized alongside RFID will enable the smooth process of tracking down spending analysis by suppliers on a global basis. This can be implemented across different product categories. Moreover, SRM will permit comparison of supplier metrics and benchmarks. In other words, it will be possible for the manufacturer to outsource the most viable supplier through real time record. In the case of lean supply chain, the lead-time compression will be monitored with ease so long as the RFID technological platform has been fully integrated in the business cycle. Contract Management (CM) when used together with RFID technology will enhance the sharing of vital information among suppliers alongside enabling the establishment of web-based procurement process that are fast and convenient to the users. Contact Management will also permit the continual monitoring of supply chain and most importantly ensuring that the performance of suppliers is up to date and according to the earlier proposed agreements. Spend Management software such as Ariba, Statistical Analysis System (SAS) and Standard Assessment Procedure (SAP) to catch up with the implementation of RFID by most vendors in the supply chain. A case example is that of Xerox. The company ha s already installed and using the internet procurement system. The new system is intended to cut down on unnecessary costs associated with non-productive purchasing. Sincerely speaking, this is one way through which Xerox Corporation will be practicing lean manufacturing and hence lean supply chain paradigm (Heinrich, 2005). The net effect will be transformation of the supply chain system of the company from the one that is geared towards waste elimination to one that is consistent with an agile approach whereby efficiency will be improved significantly. In the long run, Xerox Corporation anticipates lowering down its expenditure on goods and services that have been deemed as less productive in the manufacturing and supply chain paradigm (Heinrich, 2005). The integration of SCM and Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) systems alongside with RFID technology is also a vita practice in supply chain management since the latter may not be very fruitful its functionality is supported by other integral systems. Both the SCM and ERP play pertinent roles in shaping a vibrant supply chain. The main reason why the two tools were developed was to standardize and optimize internal SC processes (Attaran, 2007). This standardization mainly targeted the following supply chain domains namely distribution, production, procurement and finance. While the initial generation systems were largely sole-based and lacked a collaborative approach, the modern systems being used in supply chain management are open and component based as we ll as web enabled. As critical example is the application of modern ERP systems together with RFID technologies. Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) has the potential of ensuring that data is centrally managed while at the same time facilitating the mobility of information from one point to another. This feature has enhanced consistency and visibility of data since it readily provides all information regarding customers, production needs, inventory, purchases as well as sales (Attaran, 2007). Conclusions In summing up, it is imperative to note that the lean paradigm demands the elimination of the unnecessary inputs that may not be directly proportional to the process of production. On the other hand, there is need to maintain a nimble approach to the agile paradigm. This is vital in supply chain management of this nature bearing in mind that the loss in sales can never be recovered. One outstanding difference between the two paradigms is that while level scheduling is more valued in lean supply, the reservation of capacity to be able to deal with unpredictable demand is a functionality of the agile paradigm. On the same note, it is worth to note that most supply chains are cyclic in nature and therefore prompting the concepts of market qualifiers and market winners. The two paradigms, though completely differentiated from each other, cannot be discussed in total isolation since companies which pursue lean approach in their supply chains still struggle to move towards an agile system while those undertaking the latter still require to minimize wastes in order to boost profitability and growth in revenue. Finally, the pursuit towards improving the management of supply chains has witnessed the adoption and implementation of RFID technology in tracking down supplies from the point of production to delivery to customers. Other supportive tools such as the internet, e-commerce, Decision Support Systems (DSS), Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP), Electronic Data Interc hange (EDI) and Customer Premise Equipment (CPE) have been integrated in the contemporary supply chain management. References Attaran, M. 2007. RFID: an enabler of supply chain operations. Supply Chain Management: An International Journal, 12(4): 249–257. Dell, M. Fedman, C.1999. Direct from Dell: Strategies that Revolutionised an Industry, London: Harper Collins. Heinrich, C.E. 2005. RFID and Beyond. Indianapolis: Wiley Sons. Naylor et al. 1999. Leagility: Integrating the lean and agile manufacturing paradigms in the total supply chain. International Journal of Production Economics, 62: 107- 118. Appendices An Agile versus lean supply chains for market qualifiers An agile supply chain based on information This report on Supply Chain Management and Modern Technologies was written and submitted by user Jaxon E. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Innovative Ways to Teach Math

Innovative Ways to Teach Math Believe it or not, math can be taught in some very innovative ways, and private schools are some of the top educational institutions pioneering new ways to master a traditional subject. A case study in this unique approach to teaching math can be found at one of the top boarding schools in the US, the Phillips Exeter Academy. Years ago, teachers at Exeter developed a series of math books containing problems, techniques, and strategies that are now being used at other private day and boarding schools. This technique has become known as Exeter Math.   The Process of Exeter Math What makes Exeter Math truly innovative, is that the traditional classes and course progression of Algebra 1, Algebra 2, Geometry, etc., is done away with in favor of students learning the skills and computations necessary to solve problems. Every homework assignment contains elements of each traditional math course, rather than separating them out into segmented annual learning.  The math courses at Exeter are centered on the math problems  written by the teachers. The entire course is different from traditional math classes in that it is problem-centered rather than topic-centered. For many, the traditional middle or high school math class generally presents a topic within the class time with the teacher and then asks students to complete lengthy assignments at home that consist of repetitive problem-solving exercises, intended to help students better master the procedures for homework. However, the process is altered in Exeters math classes, which involve little direct instruction drills. Instead, students are given a small number of word problems to complete each night independently. There is little direct instruction about how to complete the problems, but there is a glossary to help students, and the problems tend to build on each other. The students direct the learning process themselves. Each night, students work on the problems, doing the best they can, and log their work. In these problems, the learning  process  is just as important as the answer, and teachers want to see all of the students’ work, even if it is done on their calculators. What If a Student Struggles With Math? Teachers suggest that if students are stuck on a problem, they make an educated guess and then check their work. They do this by making up an easier problem with the same principle as the given problem. Since Exeter is a boarding school, students can visit their teachers, other students, or the math help center if they are stuck while doing their homework in their dorms at night. They are expected to carry out 50 minutes of concentrated work per night and to work persistently, even if the work is very difficult for them. The next day, students bring their work to class where they discuss it in a seminar-like style around a Harkness table, an oval-shaped table that was designed at Exeter and is used in most of their classes to facilitate conversation. The idea is not to just present the right answer but for each student to have a turn presenting his or her work to facilitate conversation, share methods, work out problems, communicate about ideas, and support other students. What Is the Purpose of the Exeter Method? While traditional math courses emphasize rote learning that does not connect to everyday issues, the purpose of the Exeter word problems is to help students really understand math by working out the equations and algorithms themselves rather than just being given them. They also come to understand the applications of the problems. While this process can be very difficult, particularly for students new to the program, students learn traditional math areas such as algebra, geometry, and others by working out the ideas themselves. As a result, they really understand them and how they relate to mathematical issues and problems they could encounter outside of the classroom. Many private schools across the country are adopting the Exeter math class materials and procedures, particularly for honors math class. Teachers at schools using Exeter math state that the program helps students own their work and take responsibility for learning it- rather than simply having it handed to them. Perhaps the most important aspect of Exeter math is that it teaches students that being stuck on a problem is acceptable. Instead, students realize that it’s all right not to know the answers right away and that discovery and even frustration are in fact essential to real learning. Updated by Stacy Jagodowski.

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Gospel Interpretation Project - Research Paper Example During Lazarus time, the dead were buried immediately after their death. This was because there were no preservatives of the dead body and burial had to take pace immediately so that the body did not decompose and become a bother to the people. Moreover, there were burial rites that needed to be observed. For example, in the case of Lazarus, he was wrapped with white clothing before he was buried according to the Jewish culture. Similar to many other cultures, people went to mourn with the family of the deceased. This explains why there was a crowd surrounding the home ground of Lazarus that Jesus found when he went to visit four days after his death. The people were aware that the body underwent decomposition after burial because the sisters to Lazarus indicated to Jesus that they were afraid that he was rotting and smelling already. Moreover, the people exhibited fear for the dead as they were not aware of the real condition of the dead. This explains why they were shocked when the y were shocked when he was resurrected (Harris 403). Prior to the event of resurrecting Lazarus, the Jews had threatened to stone Jesus. Therefore, the disciples were against the idea of Jesus joining any crowd that comprised of the Jews. However, Jesus indicated that it was during the day and he had twelve hours to complete his daily activities. It was at this point that Jesus made the disciples aware that Lazarus had died. However, at first he said it figuratively giving the disciples the impression that he was just asleep. After realizing that the disciples has not grasped the meaning f his words, he said it clear that Lazarus had died. However, he mentioned that it was a good thing that he had not been there during his death because this could present a good opportunity for them to believe. With this, Jesus was referring to the event making people believe that he was the son of God (V., C n.p). On

How Does Public Opinion Influence Policy Making Politics Essay

How Does Public Opinion Influence Policy Making Politics Essay Public opinion is the summation of individual attitudes, sentiments or views held by grown-up people. Public opinions can be swayed by public associations and political media. Mass media uses a broad range of advertising techniques to get their message out and change the peoples opinions. By assessing the opinions at the personal level and combining them, the percentage of the population with particular views and preferences can be established. Public opinions affect policy both positively and negatively depending on the overall general public view on the policy. Governments have in many occasions devised the use of public opinions for guiding their public information and helping in the making of government policies. The fundamental representation of democracy is the provision of a method through which public opinion and public policy are dependably and frequently interacted. Robert and Gerald (1993) claims that there should be on one hand preferences for the policy and on the other hand public responsiveness to the policy. Political representation has become a major subject in todays politics, and in highly developed democracies there has been increased dissatisfaction with the governments with many people claiming that governments dont represent their interest when formulating policies. According to Holti (1996) the Meech Lake Accord, which was a policy advocating for the Canadian elite accommodation, was met with extensive cries for transparency and public discussion. Many policy planners in addition included public opinion and organized interest groups as important parts in their policy formulation process. Besides public opinion, organized interest groups also participate as a nongovernmental political determinant of the public policy. Public opinion may influence policy positive or negatively. How public opinion influences policy Representation largely depends on a reactive public which watches and responds to what the government is doing. Little advantages are gained on policies where the public is not attentive and uninformed on their preference. Public opinion on policies is very important to representation democratic system as a part of representation itself. A public that is quick to respond behaves like a thermostat as it adjusts its preferences for more or less policy depending on what policy makers do. State governments should develop policy outputs that replicate the concerns of the public and organized interests. Interest groups can also participate various roles standing-in as public or clients representatives as a broker of political information or as policy experts. Public opinion should hold larger weight on policy- making when a mood of the public is successfully communicated by use of interest group activities. The interest group serves as a representative of the mood of the people with their own policy goals. Population based approximations have been used but their effects have been difficult to ensnare from the split effects of socioeconomic conditions According to Daniel (2005) in the last fifteen years, new measures of state public opinion supported on group disaggregated nationwide surveys had revealed a good linkage between the state policy, open-mindedness, and public opinion. Interest groups and general public play an important role in influencing bureaucratic decision making. In USA, both the state public views and those done by interest groups support the addition of non- governmental forces in manipulating policy outcomes. For example, by examining the effect of public opinion of environmental, health and education policies, the conservatives will prefer a free market situation whereas the liberals will pursue a government centered regulation to address these problems in aforementioned areas. By using interest groups, the more groups that are organized around a particular policy area, the more authority that advocacy community has on public policy outputs. By increasing the numbers of advocacy communities, they are able to communicate their ideas to policymakers more frequently and urgently. Public interests group serve as representative by including an interaction between the public and the organized interests. The environmental groups serve to represent a broader public as compared to health and education. The governments political situations such as party control of countrys legislature and governorship, together with party competition with the state, is also a policy determinants. Party competition within the state as a government political condition affects public policy and thus affects public opinion. A party competitiveness will create a positive public policy and public opinion. External State conditions are also determinants of public policy, which may include population indicators, economic, and geographic conditions. For example, richer states usually have more capital to spend on environmental programs and are more likely respond to a higher increase in taxation since their higher incomes exceeds the threshold to satisfy more basic needs. Higher incomes levels have an encouraging relationship on environmental policy. The mass public opinion concerning American foreign policy has been expressed inconsistently and rationality and on incoherence on the other side. In general, the American public do not support the foreign policy due to lack of their involvement in the policy making process. According to Witt Kopf (1990) this is because the American people are ill informed and not interested about foreign policy with equivalent weakness to demonstrate that unstable foreign policies are liable to manipulation by political elites. Poverty rates affect both health and education policys negatively. Contrasting to access to health care the burden of education expenditure for impoverished population is in general manifested in increased states spending compared to local expenditures because small income base of regions with larger poor people. The proportion of locally raised education income is a good indicator of how states fund their education system. Some states preserve a high level of control over their schools systems and thus provide the bulk of the required funding. According to Courtney and David (2005) increases in educational attainment improve both verbal and writing skills and results to higher income and greater professional prestige, enhancing social capital and improved understanding of political processes, which in turn leads to greater political participation. Views of those who are more learned have a greater influence than views of those with less learned. The possibility of comparative pressure depends on which policies are chosen as outcomes variables. The suggestion follows from the contingent model of public opinions weight on policy which affirms that the degree to which a policy is affected by judgment is related to the salience of the subject to the public. The underlying principle for saliencys effect on policy awareness is that people are more politically active when matters are important to them. For example, the effects of public views on civilian rights policies in US. Civil rights mattes are possibly more salient issues to blacks than whites and as a result attitudes of blacks may carry more weight with politicians than attitudes of whites. The Federal government and both state and local governments have in many times hiked cigarette excise taxes in the current years from 24cents per pack to 34 cents per pack with a total of 19 states complying with the increase. The two effects of the reputation of cigarette excise taxes can be predicted in that one is to create revenue from smokers who continue to smoke and also to persuade minor smokers to quite. The problem that is being addressed is the extent to which tobacco control policies affect the public opinion towards smoking. Tobacco management policies can be used to change inexperienced assumptions on fitness risks caused by smoking and can serve as an alternative for health teaching. The execution of tobacco taxes can eventually change public opinions towards smoking. Several alternatives for public opinion have been developed towards smoking and have been scrutinized with relationship between alternatives and the changes in policy on cigarettes. Smokers who prepare to stop smoking obviously ridicule smoking more than the smokers who dont want to stop. The health behaviors of those who are affluent calculated by the attainment of education may serve as an important pointer for public reaction towards smoking. For that reason, the dominance of smoking by intention to stop and education achievement arguably serve as better alternatives for attitude towards smoking than the rate of smoking alone. The proxy for the public response towards smoking is related to the explicit support of tobacco control policies and succeeding change in tobacco control laws. The prevalence of educate smokers who dont want to stop is the best proxy for public reaction towards smoking and accordingly changes in cigarette demand. There is always depressing relationship between excise taxes hikes and the predominance smoking which is primarily driven by the predominance educated smokers who dont want to stop. Public reaction towards smoking is a central feature to what exten t tobacco policies are implemented. If tobacco control rules such as cigarette excise taxes and smoking bans are related with public reactions towards smoking, then it follows that smoking sentiments influence future demand than the tobacco control policies. The decline in cigarette smoking and the hike in tax reflect to some extent the public reaction towards smoking. Tobacco control policies and public sentiments together help in reducing the rate of smoking. How public opinion does not influence policy Policy makers in many times are forced to make an assumption that public views are a reliable guide to making public policy whereas they should not. Public opinion polling often assesses the wishes and liking of respondents but doesnt reflect the costs or threat associated with the policy. Public opinions conveyed in polls cannot tell the policy choice which needs consideration to tradeoffs among values to second-best potential and to unexpected risks. Opinion polls are not likely to get better enough to help the policy choices. Enhancements make the polls results more expensive or too difficult to get from worn out respondents. Therefore, we should not expect in future that polling will replace the use of reasoned policy choices by chosen spokespersons of the people. Despite all the numerical fancy in modern days polling, the dug out advice should not direct public policy. Although public requirements for more government intercession to help are real in that people honestly crave the promised improvement, the cries for state action fail to meet even the highest minimal standard of legitimate guidance. Modern day polls are seducing those who respondent and dont offer them hard choices like the ones faced by policy analysts or legislatures. Polls do not offer wide-reaching advice about policy but they only measure wishes for worlds of advantages with no costs. Opinion polling has crossed the line between mechanically footage popular attitudes and becoming a political player. Contemporary polls are not excellent guides to policy making and we dont have the reason to believe they can be improved to stand in place of policy analysis. A triumphant battle against facile entreatment must deal with the way polls are used not the surveys themselves. Abstract craving for public bounty should only be regarded as interesting curiosities and under no conditions should they notify policymakers or determine policy choices. The capacity of political system to act in response to the likings of its citizens is innermost to democratic presumption and practice. Where assessed, public opinion expresses a reasoned mood or view on a meticulous policy of a problem in a manner that is identifiable by political influential and it is more likely than not that the progress of the policy will be in the path of public opinion. Two parameters which must be followed are within a broad of constraints established by public views. Politicians and policy entrepreneurs often have considera ble room to plot policy in detailed ways that are not noticeable to the public. According to Kennamer (1992) there are different ways to transform welfare, evade spread of communism in underdeveloped countries, fight crime, and address shortage of energy. Secondly whereas the public opinion clearly places important limits on policymaking, the amalgamation of contradictory public views on majority vital policy issues and the capability of political elites to contour or direct views considerably reduce the independent informal impact of public sentiments. Policy questions are intrinsically many sided and is often the reason that strategy and political entrepreneurs can draw upon particular issues structured and abroad ideological underpinnings that have accepted support to endorse meticulous policy schedule. Conclusion It is the external demands of public views that hold and influence policy-making decisions and not the widely known formal apparatus of government. The power of the public opinion in relation to party of the legislature does not essentially underrate the power of the government officials and institutions. According to Norris (1997) the American State governments are responsive to the views of general public and to organized publics. State governments function just as representative democracies with policy out puts very much reflecting the state and external political conditions. Public opinions at the same time tend to have a steady effect across policy areas while the governments tend to be operating in a representative manner, with policy principally the wills of its citizens. Party platforms and electoral fortunes serve as expansions of outer determinants connecting needs and wants with policies and programs. In addition, the impacts of non-governmental political situations on pol icy can vary across problem areas. Organized interest are not massive persuaders of public policy and different groups across problem areas have varying effects as they search for to push forward their own specific goals. Even within the same problem, groups can have varying goals and impact across specific agendas and policies. Public opinion tends to have consistent effect across policy areas.

Graphics Packages :: Computers Technology

Graphics Packages Graphics is a word used for all the different types of artwork, such as photographs, graphs, charts etc. Graphics packages Graphics packages may not be as detailed as you think. It can be a simple paint package, which has features of shading, drawing line diagrams and many other simple but effective features. These packages can be an alternative to complicated DTP packages. As it is very difficult to draw with the mouse, many people scan the drawings on the computer and now there are software packages, which do not use a mouse. New equipment used by professionals so that they can get pictures from a variety of places. A video grabber lets you get pictures from the television or a video camera and you then can alter it on your computer. A digital camera is also very popular as you can take pictures and then put them on your PC and alter then. This also means that you do not have to pay for the developing cost. You can also use clip art for pictures. Bit map vector graphics When using a graphics package the graphics file can have the image represented as a: 1.Bit map 2.Vector image A bit map files makes every dot or pixel on the screen has a single bit of information in a file. If it is in colour, you then need to store additional bits. The disadvantage to this is that if you want to alter anything you have to change it at a pixel at a time. When you enlarge an image, the number of pixels stays the same. In vector graphics, the lines are stored as equations on the computer. They are stored in vectors. The advantage of vector graphics over bit map files is that it is easy to alter things without any loss in resolution. When you enlarge an image, the number of pixels increases to the proportion of the image. CAD packages use vector images. Clip Art Clip Art is a collection of copyright-free drawings which you can place on your drawings. The drawings on clip-art look very professional, as they have been drawn in detail. Presentation software Pictures let you give ideas and concepts a better understanding than only words. Good presentations use things such as slides and transparencies to express views. A projector could be used for a large audience or a rolling slide show could be produced on a computer for smaller audiences.